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Devanagari |
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Devanagari script (vowels top, consonants bottom)
in Chandas font[better source needed] |
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Script type |
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Time period |
Early form: 1st
century CE[1] Modern form: 7th century CE to
present[2][3] |
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Direction |
left-to-right |
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Region |
India 120+ languages use Devanagari Script Fiji as script for Fiji Hindi |
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Languages |
Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhili, Bhojpuri, Bodo, Braj Bhasha, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri, Gujarati, Garhwali Haryanvi, Hindi, Hindustani, Kashmiri, Konkani, Kumaoni Magahi, Maithili, Marathi, Marwari, Mundari, Newari, Nepali, Pāḷi, Pahari, Prakrit, Rajasthani, Sadri, Sanskrit, Santali, Saraiki, Sherpa and Sindhi, Surjapuri,
and many more |
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Related scripts |
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Parent systems |
§ Brāhmī § Gupta § Nāgarī § Devanagari |
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Sister systems |
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ISO 15924 |
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Deva, 315 , Devanagari
(Nagari) |
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Unicode alias |
Devanagari |
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U+0900–U+097F Devanagari, |
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[a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not
universally agreed upon. |
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This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and
⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. |
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Devanāgarī |
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·
Abugida |
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show Languages |
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show |
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show Vowels and syllabic consonants |
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show |
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show Diacritics, punctuation, symbols |
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show |
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v ·
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The Brahmic script and its descendants |
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show Northern Brahmic |
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show Southern Brahmic |
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v ·
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Devanagari (/ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəri/ DAY-və-NAH-gər-ee; देवनागरी, IAST: Devanāgarī,
Sanskrit pronunciation: [d̪eːʋɐˈn̪ɑːɡɐɾiː]), also called Nagari (Nāgarī, नागरी),[9] is a
left-to-right abugida (alphasyllabary),[10] based on the
ancient Brāhmī script,[1] used in
the Indian subcontinent. It was developed in
ancient India from the 1st to the 4th century CE[1] and
was in regular use by the 7th century CE.[9][11] The
Devanagari script, composed of 47 primary characters including 14 vowels and 33
consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted
writing system in the world,[12] being
used for over 120 languages.[13]
The orthography of this script reflects the
pronunciation of the language.[13] Unlike
the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of letter case.[14] It
is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded
shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known
as a shirorekhā, that runs along the top of full letters.[10] In
a cursory look, the Devanagari script appears different from other Indic scripts such as Bengali-Assamese, Odia or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals
they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.[10]
Among the languages
using it – as either their only script or one of their scripts – are Marathi, Pāḷi, Sanskrit (the ancient Nagari script for
Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters),[15] Hindi,[16] Nepali, Sherpa, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha,[17] Chhattisgarhi, Haryanvi, Magahi, Nagpuri, Rajasthani, Bhili, Dogri, Maithili, Kashmiri, Konkani, Sindhi, Bodo, Nepalbhasa, Mundari and Santali.[13] The
Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in
numerous ancient manuscripts of South India,[18][19] and
it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts.[13]
Contents
·
2History
·
3Letters
o
3.9Fonts
o
4.3IAST
o
4.7WX
o
5.1ISCII
·
6Devanagari
keyboard layouts
o
8.3Census and
catalogues of manuscripts in Devanagari
Etymology[edit]
Devanagari is
a compound of "deva" देव and "nāgarī" नागरी.[9] Deva means
"heavenly or divine" and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism.[20] Nagari comes
from नगरम्
(nagaram), which means abode or city. Hence, Devanagari denotes from
the abode of divinity or deities.
Nāgarī is
the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara "relating
or belonging to a town or city, urban". It is a phrasing with lipi ("script")
as nāgarī lipi "script relating to a
city", or "spoken in city".[21]
Devanagari Script
known as 'Script of the divine city' came from devanagara or the 'city of the
god'. And hence interpret it as "[script] of the city of the gods".[22]
The use of the
name devanāgarī emerged from the older term nāgarī.[23] According
to Fischer, Nagari emerged in the northwest Indian subcontinent around
633 CE, was fully developed by the 11th-century, and was one of the major
scripts used for the Sanskrit literature.[23]
History[edit]
Devanagari is part
of the Brahmic family of
scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet,
and Southeast Asia.[24][23] It
is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brahmi script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to
Devanagari and Nandinagari.
Devanagari has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write
Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, Hindi dialects, Konkani, and Nepali.
Some of the
earliest epigraphical evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nagari script in
ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered
in Gujarat.[1] Variants
of script called Nāgarī, recognisably close to
Devanagari, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit,
while the modern standardised form of Devanagari was in use by about
1000 CE.[11][25] Medieval
inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts,
with biscripts presenting local script along
with the adoption of Nagari scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script;
while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanagari scripts.[26]
The Nagari script
was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by
about the end of first millennium.[9][11] The
use of Sanskrit in Nagari script in medieval India is attested by numerous
pillar and cave temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh,[27] and
an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE,
which is now held at the British Museum.[28] The
script's proto- and related versions have been discovered in ancient relics
outside of India, such as in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Indonesia; while in East Asia, Siddha
Matrika script considered as the closest precursor to Nagari was in
use by Buddhists.[15][29] Nagari
has been the primus inter pares of
the Indic scripts.[15] It
has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit
information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local
scripts (such as Modi, Kaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce,
and other daily uses.
Sharada remained in
parallel use in Kashmir. An early version
of Devanagari is visible in the Kutila
inscription of Bareilly dated to Vikram Samvat 1049 (i.e. 992 CE),
which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters
belonging to a word.[2] One
of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nagari
pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a
composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about
14th century CE.[30]
|
Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta, and to
Devanagari[31] |
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k- |
kh- |
g- |
gh- |
ṅ- |
c- |
ch- |
j- |
jh- |
ñ- |
ṭ- |
ṭh- |
ḍ- |
ḍh- |
ṇ- |
t- |
th- |
d- |
dh- |
n- |
p- |
ph- |
b- |
bh- |
m- |
y- |
r- |
l- |
v- |
ś- |
ṣ- |
s- |
h- |
|
|
𑀓 |
𑀔 |
𑀕 |
𑀖 |
𑀗 |
𑀘 |
𑀙 |
𑀚 |
𑀛 |
𑀜 |
𑀝 |
𑀞 |
𑀟 |
𑀠 |
𑀡 |
𑀢 |
𑀣 |
𑀤 |
𑀥 |
𑀦 |
𑀧 |
𑀨 |
𑀩 |
𑀪 |
𑀫 |
𑀬 |
𑀭 |
𑀮 |
𑀯 |
𑀰 |
𑀱 |
𑀲 |
𑀳 |
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Devanagari |
क |
ख |
ग |
घ |
ङ |
च |
छ |
ज |
झ |
ञ |
ट |
ठ |
ड |
ढ |
ण |
त |
थ |
द |
ध |
न |
प |
फ |
ब |
भ |
म |
य |
र |
ल |
व |
श |
ष |
स |
ह |
East Asia[edit]
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya
Dhāraṇī Sūtra in Siddham on palm-leaf in 609 CE. Hōryū-ji, Japan. The last line is a
complete Sanskrit syllabary in
Siddhaṃ script.
Under the rule
of Songtsen Gampo of
the Tibetan Empire, Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open
marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to
find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language. Thus he invented the Tibetan script, based on the Nagari used in
Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[32]
Other scripts
closely related to Nagari such as Siddham Matrka were in use in Indonesia,
Vietnam, Japan and other parts of East Asia by between 7th to 10th century.[33][34]
Most of the
southeast Asian scripts have roots in the Dravidian scripts, except for a few
found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia
that resemble Devanagari or its prototype. The Kawi script in particular is similar to
the Devanagari in many respects though the morphology of the script has local
changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanagari-like scripts are from
around the 10th-century, with many more between 11th and 14th century.[35][36] Some
of the old-Devanagari inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as
the Prambanan temple.[37] The
Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th-century,
are also in the Nagari script of North India. According to the epigraphist and
Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th-century
copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanagari
script.[38] The
term Kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from Kavya (poetry).
According to anthropologists and Asian Studies scholars John Norman Miksic and
Goh Geok Yian, the 8th-century version of early Nagari or Devanagari script was
adopted in Java, Bali (Indonesia), and Khmer (Cambodia) around 8th or 9th-century, as
evidenced by the many inscriptions of this period.[39]
Letters[edit]
The letter order of
Devanagari, like nearly all Brahmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both
the manner and place of articulation of
the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred
to as the varṇamālā "garland of letters".[40] The
format of Devanagari for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application,
with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[41]
Vowels[edit]
The vowels and
their arrangement are:[42]
|
Independent form |
As diacritic with प (Barakhadi) |
Independent form |
IAST |
ISO |
As diacritic with प (Barakhadi) |
|||||
|
kaṇṭhya |
अ |
a |
प |
आ |
ā |
पा |
||||
|
tālavya |
इ |
i |
पि |
ई |
ī |
पी |
||||
|
oṣṭhya |
उ |
u |
पु |
ऊ |
ū |
पू |
||||
|
mūrdhanya |
ऋ |
ṛ |
r̥ |
पृ |
ॠ4 |
ṝ |
r̥̄ |
पॄ |
||
|
dantya |
ऌ4 |
ḷ |
l̥ |
पॢ |
ॡ4, 5 |
ḹ |
l̥̄ |
पॣ |
||
|
kaṇṭhatālavya |
ए |
e |
ē |
पे |
ऐ |
ai |
पै |
|||
|
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya |
ओ |
o |
ō |
पो |
औ |
au |
पौ |
|||
|
अं1 |
aṃ |
aṁ |
पं |
अः1 |
aḥ |
पः |
||||
|
ॲ / ऍ 7 |
ê |
पॅ |
ऑ7 |
ô |
पॉ |
|||||
.jpg)
Examples of
Devanagari manuscripts created between 13th- and 19th-centuries
1.
Arranged with the
vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra ं ṃ and
the final fricative visarga ः ḥ (called अं aṃ and अः aḥ). Masica (1991:146) notes of the anusvāra in
Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a
homorganic nasal stop [...],
a nasalised vowel,
a nasalised semivowel, or all these
according to context". The visarga represents
post-vocalic voiceless
glottal fricative [h], in Sanskrit an allophone of s, or less
commonly r, usually in word-final position. Some traditions of
recitation append an echo of the vowel after
the breath:[43] इः [ihi]. Masica (1991:146) considers the visarga along
with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña for
the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of
"phonetic overkill in the system".
2.
Another diacritic
is the candrabindu/anunāsika ँ अँ. Salomon (2003:76–77) describes it as a "more
emphatic form" of the anusvāra, "sometimes
[...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan
language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalisation[44] while
the anusvār indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant:[45] e.g. हँसी [ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा [ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akṣara has
a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon")
stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the
lone dot:[46] हूँ [ɦũ] "am",
but हैं [ɦɛ̃] "are".
Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke
altogether, using only the dot in all situations.[47]
3.
The avagraha ऽ अऽ (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: एकोऽयम् eko'yam (
← एकस् ekas + अयम् ayam)
"this one". An original long vowel lost to coalescence is
sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्मा sadā'tmā (
← सदा sadā +
आत्मा ātmā)
"always, the self".[48] In
Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main
function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! āīīī!.
In Madhyadeshi Languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have
"quite a number of verbal forms [that] end
in that inherent vowel",[49] the avagraha is
used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a,
which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ baiṭha "sit"
versus बइठ baiṭh
4.
The syllabic
vowels ṝ (ॠ), ḷ, (ऌ)
and ḹ (ॡ)
are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of
other languages. The sound represented by ṛ has also
been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi)
to [ɾu] (Marathi).
5.
ḹ is
not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit,
but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain
the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[41]
6.
There are
non-regular formations of रु ru and रू rū.
7.
There are two more
vowels in Marathi as
well as Konkani, ॲ and ऑ,
that respectively represent [æ], similar to the RP English
pronunciation of <a> in ‘act’, and [ɒ], similar to the RP
pronunciation of ⟨o⟩ in ‘cot’.
These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too,
as in डॉलर dôlar,
"dollar".[50] IAST
transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919, the transliteration is ê and ô,
respectively.
Consonants[edit]
The table below
shows the consonant letters (in combination with inherent vowel a) and their
arrangement. To the right of the Devanagari letter it shows the Latin script
transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration,[51] and
the phonetic value (IPA)
in Hindi.[52][53]
|
sparśa |
anunāsika |
antastha |
ūṣman/saṃgharṣī |
|||||||||||||
|
Voicing → |
aghoṣa |
saghoṣa |
aghoṣa |
saghoṣa |
||||||||||||
|
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
|||||||||||
|
kaṇṭhya |
क |
ka |
ख |
kha |
ग |
ga |
घ |
gha |
ङ |
ṅa |
ह |
ha |
||||
|
tālavya |
च |
ca |
छ |
cha |
ज |
ja |
झ |
jha |
ञ |
ña |
य |
ya |
श |
śa |
||
|
mūrdhanya |
ट |
ṭa |
ठ |
ṭha |
ड |
ḍa |
ढ |
ḍha |
ण |
ṇa |
र |
ष |
ṣa |
|||
|
dantya |
त |
ta |
थ |
tha |
द |
da |
ध |
dha |
न |
na |
ल |
la |
स |
sa |
||
|
oṣṭhya |
प |
pa |
फ |
pha |
ब |
ba |
भ |
bha |
म |
ma |
व |
va |
||||
·
Additionally, there
is ळ ḷa (IPA: [ɭ] or [ɭ̆]),
the intervocalic lateral flap allophone
of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi, Konkani, Garhwali, and Rajasthani.[54]
·
Beyond the
Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated. Masica (1991:146) offers the following,
"In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been
described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and
perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to
conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit". Where
foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in
New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through
means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored
in recitation).
o
The most prolific
diacritic has been the subscript dot (nuqtā) ़. Hindi uses
it for the Persian, Arabic and English sounds क़ qa /q/, ख़ xa /x/, ग़ ġa /ɣ/, ज़ za /z/, झ़ zha /ʒ/,
and फ़ fa /f/,
and for the allophonic developments ड़ ṛa /ɽ/ and ढ़ ṛha /ɽʱ/.[55] (Although ऴ ḻa /ɻ/ could
also exist, it is not used in Hindi.)
o
Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated with a line
attached below: ॻ [ɠə], ॼ [ʄə], ॾ [ɗə], ॿ [ɓə].
o
Aspirated sonorants may be represented as
conjuncts/ligatures with ह ha: म्ह mha, न्ह nha, ण्ह ṇha, व्ह vha, ल्ह lha, ळ्ह ḷha, र्ह rha.
o
Masica (1991:147) notes Marwari as using ॸ for ḍa [ɗə] (while ड represents [ɽə]).
For a list of the
297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-(short) vowel syllables see Āryabhaṭa
numeration.
Vowel diacritics[edit]
Vowel diacritics on क
Table: Consonants
with vowel diacritics. Vowels in their independent form on the left and in
their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k'
on the right. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a'
is inherent. ISO 15919[56] transliteration
is on the top two rows.
|
ISO |
a |
ā |
æ |
ɒ |
i |
ī |
u |
ū |
e |
ē |
ai |
o |
ō |
au |
r̥ |
r̥̄ |
l̥ |
l̥̄ |
ṁ |
ḥ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
a |
ka |
ā |
kā |
æ |
kæ |
ɒ |
kɒ |
i |
ki |
ī |
kī |
u |
ku |
ū |
kū |
e |
ke |
ē |
kē |
ai |
kai |
o |
ko |
ō |
kō |
au |
kau |
r̥ |
kr̥ |
r̥̄ |
kr̥̄ |
l̥ |
kl̥ |
l̥̄ |
kl̥̄ |
ṁ |
kaṁ |
ḥ |
kaḥ |
k |
|
|
Devanagari |
अ |
क |
आ |
का |
ॲ |
कॅ |
ऑ |
कॉ |
इ |
कि |
ई |
की |
उ |
कु |
ऊ |
कू |
ऎ |
कॆ |
ए |
के |
ऐ |
कै |
ऒ |
कॊ |
ओ |
को |
औ |
कौ |
ऋ |
कृ |
ॠ |
कॄ |
ऌ |
कॢ |
ॡ |
कॣ |
अं |
कं |
अः |
कः |
क् |
A vowel combines
with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel आ (ā) combines with the
consonant क् (k) to
form the syllabic letter का (kā),
with haland removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics. The vowel अ (a) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form क (ka) with haland removed. But, the
diacritic series of क, ख, ग, घ ...
(ka, kha, ga, gha) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel अ
(a) is inherent.
Conjunct consonants[edit]
Main
article: Devanagari conjuncts
The Jnanesvari is
a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, dated to 1290 CE. It
is in written in Marathi using
Devanagari script.
As mentioned,
successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join
together as a conjunct consonant or ligature.
When Devanagari is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts
are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use
the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is
conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word karnā is
written करना (ka-ra-nā).[57] The
government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules,
with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are
certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one
scheme. The following are a number of rules:
·
24 out of the 36
consonants contain a vertical right stroke (ख kha, घ gha, ण ṇa etc.).
As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke.
e.g. त + व = त्व tva, ण + ढ = ण्ढ ṇḍha, स + थ = स्थ stha.
In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are
called half forms.[58] श ś(a) appears
as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding व va, न na, च ca, ल la,
and र ra,
causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्व śva, श्न śna, श्च śca श्ल śla,
and श्र śra.
·
र r(a) as
a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character
or its ā-diacritic. e.g. र्व rva, र्वा rvā, र्स्प rspa, र्स्पा rspā.
As a final member with ट ṭa, ठ ṭha, ड ḍa, ढ ḍha, ड़ ṛa, छ cha,
it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus ट्र ṭra, ठ्र ṭhra, ड्र ḍra, ढ्र ḍhra, ड़्र ṛra, छ्र chra.
Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and
down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र. त ta is
shifted up to make the conjunct त्र tra.
·
As first members,
remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as द d(a) and ह h(a) may
have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke,
placed underneath. क k(a), छ ch(a),
and फ ph(a) shorten
their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
·
The conjuncts
for kṣ and jñ are not clearly derived
from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for kṣ is क्ष (क् + ष)
and for jñ it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ).
Accent marks[edit]
Main
article: Vedic accent
The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various
symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, anudātta is
written with a bar below the line (◌॒), svarita with
a stroke above the line (◌॑)
while udātta is unmarked.
Punctuation[edit]
The end of a
sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "।"
symbol (called a daṇḍa,
meaning "bar", or called a pūrṇa virām,
meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked
with a double-daṇḍa, a "॥"
symbol. A comma (called an alpa virām, meaning "short
stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[59][60] Punctuation
marks of Western origin,
such as the colon, semi-colon, exclamation mark, dash,
and question mark are
in use in Devanagari script since at least the 1900s[citation needed],
matching their use in European languages.[61]
Old forms[edit]
A
few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit text Shisyalekha composed
in the 5th century by Candragomin. Shisyalekha was written in
Devanagari script by a Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE (above). The manuscript
is in the Cambridge University library.[62]
A
mid 10th-century college land grant in Devanagari inscription (Sanskrit)
discovered on a buried, damaged stone in north Karnataka. Parts of the
inscription are in Canarese script.[63]
The following
letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts.[64]
|
Letter variants |
|
|
standard |
ancient |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.svg){kind=small}
Numerals[edit]
See
also: Indian numerals, Brahmi numerals, and Hindu-Arabic
numeral system
|
Devanagari digits |
|||||||||
|
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
Fonts[edit]
A variety of
Unicode fonts are in use for Devanagari. These include Akshar,[65] Annapurna,[66] Arial,[67] CDAC-Gist
Surekh,[68] CDAC-Gist
Yogesh,[69] Chandas,[70] Gargi,[71] Gurumaa,[72] Jaipur,[73] Jana,[74] Kalimati,[75] Kanjirowa,[76] Lohit
Devanagari, Mangal,[77] Kokila,[78] Raghu,[79] Sanskrit2003,[80] Santipur
OT,[81] Siddhanta,
and Thyaka.[82]
The form of
Devanagari fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit
studies:[81]
Uttara [companion
to Chandas] is
the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well,
requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user
interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original
field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early
[medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[83] is
a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will
probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh[68] font
makes for quicker comprehension and reading.
The Google Fonts
project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanagari in a variety of typefaces
in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.
Transliteration[edit]
Main
article: Devanagari
transliteration
Indic
scripts share common features, and along with Devanagari, all major Indic scripts
have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.
There are several
methods of Romanisation or transliteration from Devanagari to
the Roman script.[84]
Hunterian system[edit]
Main
article: Hunterian
transliteration
The Hunterian system is
the "national system of romanisation in India"
and the one officially adopted by the Government of India.[85][86][87]
ISO 15919[edit]
Main
article: ISO 15919
A standard
transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It
uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin
script. The Devanagari-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic
standard for Sanskrit, IAST.[88]
IAST[edit]
The International
Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic
standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used
in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with
Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of
Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The
ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include
an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanagari.[88]
The National
Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of
all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.
Harvard-Kyoto[edit]
Compared to
IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks
much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains.
It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual
material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces
the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.[89] This
makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to
read in the middle of words.
ITRANS[edit]
ITRANS is a lossless transliteration
scheme of Devanagari into ASCII that is widely
used on Usenet. It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the
word devanāgarī is written "devanaagarii"
or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same
name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman
letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into
Devanagari (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July,
2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to
help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.[89]
Velthuis[edit]
Main
article: Velthuis
The disadvantage of
the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity,
implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is
avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX,
loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.
ALA-LC Romanisation[edit]
ALA-LC[90] romanisation
is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the
American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries.
Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[91] one
for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[92] etc.
WX[edit]
Main
article: WX notation
WX is a Roman
transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural
language processing community in India. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing
of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as
follows.
·
Every consonant and
every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation
point of view.
·
Lower-case letters
are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are
used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are
mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the
name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.
Encodings[edit]
ISCII[edit]
ISCII is
an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII,
the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.
It has been
designed for representing not only Devanagari but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based
script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.
ISCII has largely
been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII
layout for its Indic language blocks.
Unicode[edit]
Main
articles: Devanagari
(Unicode block), Devanagari Extended
(Unicode block), and Vedic Extensions (Unicode block)
The Unicode
Standard defines three blocks for Devanagari: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F),
Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).
|
|
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
U+090x |
ऀ |
ऄ |
अ |
आ |
इ |
ई |
उ |
ऊ |
ऋ |
ऌ |
ऍ |
ऎ |
ए |
|||
|
U+091x |
ऐ |
ऑ |
ऒ |
ओ |
औ |
क |
ख |
ग |
घ |
ङ |
च |
छ |
ज |
झ |
ञ |
ट |
|
U+092x |
ठ |
ड |
ढ |
ण |
त |
थ |
द |
ध |
न |
ऩ |
प |
फ |
ब |
भ |
म |
य |
|
U+093x |
र |
ऱ |
ल |
ळ |
ऴ |
व |
श |
ष |
स |
ह |
ऺ |
ऻ |
़ |
ा |
ि |
|
|
U+094x |
ी |
ु |
ू |
ृ |
ॄ |
ॅ |
ॆ |
े |
ै |
ॉ |
ॊ |
ो |
ौ |
् |
ॎ |
ॏ |
|
U+095x |
॑ |
॒ |
॓ |
॔ |
ॕ |
ॖ |
ॗ |
क़ |
ख़ |
ग़ |
ज़ |
ड़ |
ढ़ |
फ़ |
य़ |
|
|
U+096x |
ॠ |
ॡ |
ॢ |
ॣ |
० |
१ |
२ |
३ |
४ |
५ |
६ |
७ |
८ |
९ |
||
|
U+097x |
ॱ |
ॲ |
ॳ |
ॴ |
ॵ |
ॶ |
ॷ |
ॸ |
ॹ |
ॺ |
ॻ |
ॼ |
ॽ |
ॾ |
ॿ |
|
|
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 |
||||||||||||||||
|
Devanagari Extended[1] |
||||||||||||||||
|
|
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
U+A8Ex |
꣠ |
꣡ |
꣢ |
꣣ |
꣤ |
꣥ |
꣦ |
꣧ |
꣨ |
꣩ |
꣪ |
꣫ |
꣬ |
꣭ |
꣮ |
꣯ |
|
U+A8Fx |
꣰ |
꣱ |
ꣲ |
ꣳ |
ꣴ |
ꣵ |
ꣶ |
ꣷ |
꣸ |
꣹ |
꣺ |
ꣻ |
꣼ |
ꣽ |
ꣾ |
ꣿ |
|
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 |
||||||||||||||||
|
Vedic Extensions[1][2] |
||||||||||||||||
|
|
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
U+1CDx |
᳐ |
᳑ |
᳒ |
᳓ |
᳔ |
᳕ |
᳖ |
᳗ |
᳘ |
᳙ |
᳚ |
᳛ |
᳜ |
᳝ |
᳞ |
᳟ |
|
U+1CEx |
᳠ |
᳡ |
᳢ |
᳣ |
᳤ |
᳥ |
᳦ |
᳧ |
᳨ |
ᳩ |
ᳪ |
ᳫ |
ᳬ |
᳭ |
ᳮ |
ᳯ |
|
U+1CFx |
ᳰ |
ᳱ |
ᳲ |
ᳳ |
᳴ |
ᳵ |
ᳶ |
᳷ |
᳸ |
᳹ |
ᳺ |
|||||
|
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned
code points |
||||||||||||||||
Devanagari keyboard layouts[edit]
For
a list of Devanagari input tools and fonts, please see Help:Multilingual
support (Indic).
InScript layout[edit]
InScript is the standard keyboard layout
for Devanagari as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all
modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows supports the InScript
layout (using the Mangal font), which can be used to input unicode Devanagari characters.
InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.
Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout
Typewriter[edit]
This layout was
used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon.
For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this
layout.
Phonetic[edit]
Devanagari
Phonetic Keyboard Layout
One
can use ULS "अक्षरांतरण" (Transliteration) or "मराठी लिपी" (Inscript) typing options to search or
edit Marathi Wikipedia articles as shown in
this video clip; One can click on the 'cc to change the subtitle
languages to Marathi, English, Sanskrit, Konkani, Ahirani languages.
Such tools work on
phonetic transliteration. The user writes in Roman and the IME automatically
converts it into Devanagari. Some popular phonetic typing tools are
Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME.
The Mac OS X operating system includes two
different keyboard layouts for
Devanagari: one is much like INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, the other is a phonetic layout
called "Devanagari QWERTY".
Any one of Unicode
fonts input system is fine for Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects,
including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali Wikipedia. Some people use inscript. Majority uses either Google phonetic
transliteration or input facility Universal
Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language
wikiprojects Phonetic facility provided initially was java-based later
supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic
language Wiki projects are supported by Universal
Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard
(Aksharantaran, Marathi: अक्षरांतरण,
Hindi: लिप्यंतरण,
बोलनागरी)
and InScript keyboard (Marathi: मराठी लिपी).
The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports
several keyboard layouts for
Devanagari, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The
'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing
method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know
English well (and the English keyboard) but not familiar with typing in
Devanagari.
See also[edit]
·
ISCII
·
Nepali
·
Schwa
deletion in Indo-Aryan languages
·
Shiksha – the Vedic study
of sound, focusing on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
1.
^ Jump up to:a b c d Gazetteer
of the Bombay Presidency at Google Books, Rudradaman’s inscription from
1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, India, Stanford University
Archives, pages 30–45, particularly Devanagari inscription on Jayadaman's coins
pages 33–34
2.
^ Jump up to:a b Isaac
Taylor (1883), History of the Alphabet: Aryan Alphabets, Part 2,
Kegan Paul, Trench & Co, p. 333, ISBN 978-0-7661-5847-4, ... In
the Kutila this develops into a short horizontal bar, which, in the Devanagari,
becomes a continuous horizontal line ... three cardinal inscriptions of this
epoch, namely, the Kutila or Bareli inscription of 992, the Chalukya or Kistna inscription of 945,
and a Kawi inscription of 919 ... the Kutila inscription is of great importance
in Indian epigraphy, not only from its precise date, but from its offering a
definite early form of the standard Indian alphabet, the Devanagari ...
3.
^ Salomon,
Richard (1998). Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in
Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages. South Asia research.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3.
4.
^ http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions%7CReference[permanent dead link]
5.
^ Salomon 1996, p. 378.
6.
^ Salomon,
Richard, On The Origin Of The Early Indian Scripts: A Review
Article. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995),
271–279, archived from the
original on 22 May 2019, retrieved 27 March 2021
7.
^ Daniels,
P.T. (January 2008). "Writing systems of major and minor languages".
8.
^ Masica,
Colin (1993). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143.
9.
^ Jump up to:a b c d Kathleen
Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing
Group, ISBN 978-1615301492,
page 83
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c Danesh
Jain; George Cardona (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge.
p. 115. ISBN 978-1-135-79710-2. Nagari
has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes, especially squared outlines and
right angles [7 lines above the character grid]
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c Richard
Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195356663,
pages 40–42
12. ^ David
Templin. "Devanagari script". omniglot.com.
Retrieved 5 April 2015.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Devanagari (Nagari), Script Features and
Description, SIL International (2013),
United States
14. ^ Akira
Nakanishi, Writing systems of the World, ISBN 978-0804816540,
page 48
15. ^ Jump up to:a b c George
Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772945,
pages 75–77
16. ^ Hindi,
Omniglot Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages
17. ^ Snell,
Rupert. (1991). The Hindi classical tradition : a Braj
Bhāṣā reader. London: School of Oriental and African
studies. ISBN 0-7286-0175-3. OCLC 24794163.
18. ^ George
Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772945,
page 75
19. ^ Reinhold
Grünendahl (2001), South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints,
Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447045049,
pages xxii, 201–210
20. ^ Monier
Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and
Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal
Banarsidass, page 492
21. ^ Monier
Williams Online Dictionary, nagara, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany
22. ^ Maurer,
Walter H. (1976). "On the Name Devanāgarī". Journal
of the American Oriental Society. 96 (1): 101–104. doi:10.2307/599893. ISSN 0003-0279.
23. ^ Jump up to:a b c Steven
Roger Fischer (2004), A
history of writing, Reaktion Books, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, (p.
110) "... an early branch of this, as of the fourth century CE,
was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main daughter. [...] The Gupta alphabet
became the ancestor of most Indic scripts (usually through later Devanagari).
[...] Beginning around AD 600, Gupta inspired the important Nagari,
Sarada, Tibetan and Pāḷi scripts. Nagari, of India's northwest,
first appeared around AD 633. Once fully developed in the eleventh
century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or "heavenly Nagari", since it
was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit literature."
24. ^ George
Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772945,
pages 68–69
25. ^ Krishna
Chandra Sagar (1993), Foreign Influence on Ancient India, South Asia
Books, ISBN 978-8172110284,
page 137
26. ^ Richard
Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195356663,
page 71
27. ^ Michael
Willis (2001), Inscriptions from Udayagiri: locating domains of devotion,
patronage and power in the eleventh century, South Asian Studies, 17(1), pages
41–53
28. ^ Brick with Sanskrit inscription in Nagari script,
1217 CE, found in Uttar Pradesh, India (British Museum)
29. ^ Wayan Ardika
(2009), Form, Macht, Differenz: Motive und Felder ethnologischen Forschens
(Editors: Elfriede Hermann et al.), Universitätsverlag Göttingen, ISBN 978-3940344809,
pages 251–252; Quote: "Nagari script and Sanskrit language in the
inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was already influencing
Bali (Indonesia) by the 10th century CE."
30. ^ Michael Witzel (2006), in Between the
Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE (Editor: Patrick Olivelle), Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0195305326,
pages 477–480 with footnote 60;
Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with
it: Mahabhasya of Patanjali, F Kielhorn
31. ^ Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838 [1]
32. ^ William
Woodville Rockhill, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, p. 671, at Google Books, United States National Museum,
page 671
33. ^ David Quinter
(2015), From Outcasts to Emperors: Shingon Ritsu and the Mañjuśrī
Cult in Medieval Japan, Brill, ISBN 978-9004293397,
pages 63–65 with discussion on Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya
Dhāraṇī Sūtra
34. ^ Richard
Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195356663,
pages 157–160
35. ^ Avenir S.
Teselkin (1972). Old Javanese (Kawi). Cornell University Press.
pp. 9–14.
36. ^ J. G. de
Casparis (1975). Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in
Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. AD 1500. BRILL Academic.
pp. 35–43. ISBN 90-04-04172-9.
37. ^ Mary S.
Zurbuchen (1976). Introduction to Old Javanese Language and Literature: A
Kawi Prose Anthology. Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies,
University of Michigan. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 978-0-89148-053-2.
38. ^ Briggs,
Lawrence Palmer (1950). "The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty: Present
Status of the Question". Journal of the American Oriental Society.
JSTOR. 70 (2): 79–81. doi:10.2307/595536. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 595536.
39. ^ John
Norman Miksic; Goh Geok Yian (2016). Ancient
Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 177–179,
314–322. ISBN 978-1-317-27904-4.
40. ^ Salomon (2003:71)
41. ^ Jump up to:a b Salomon (2003:75)
42. ^ Wikner (1996:13, 14)
43. ^ Wikner (1996:6)
44. ^ Snell (2000:44–45)
45. ^ Snell (2000:64)
46. ^ Snell (2000:45)
47. ^ Snell (2000:46)
48. ^ Salomon (2003:77)
49. ^ Verma (2003:501)
50. ^ "Hindi Translation of "dollar" | Collins
English-Hindi Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com.
Retrieved 12 May 2019.
51. ^ Wikner (1996:73)
52. ^ Stella
Sandahl (2000). A Hindi reference grammar. Peeters.
pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-9042908802.
53. ^ Tej K.
Bhatia (1987). A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition.
BRILL Academic. pp. 51–63, 77–94. ISBN 90-04-07924-6.
54. ^ Masica
(1991:97)
55. ^ Pandey, Dipti; Mondal, Tapabrata; Agrawal, S. S.; Bangalore,
Srinivas (2013). "Development and suitability
of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR
system". 2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly
with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation
(O-COCOSDA/CASLRE): 3. doi:10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861. Only
in Hindi 10 Phonemes व
/v/ क़
/q/ ञ /ɲ/ य
/j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़
/x/ ग़
/ɣ/ ज़
/z/ झ़
/ʒ/ फ़
/f/
56. ^ Difference between ISO 15919
& IAST
57. ^ Saloman,
Richard (2007) “Typological Observations on the Indic Scripts” in The
Indic Scripts: Paleographic and Linguistic Perspecticves D.K.
Printworld Ltd., New Delhi. ISBN 812460406-1.
p. 33.
58. ^ "The Unicode Standard, chapter 9, South Asian
Scripts I" (PDF). The
Unicode Standard, v. 6.0. Unicode, Inc. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
59. ^ Unicode
Consortium, The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0, Volume 1, ISBN 978-0201616330,
Addison-Wesley, pages 221–223
60. ^ Transliteration
from Hindi Script to Meetei Mayek Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Watham and Vimal (2013),
IJETR, page 550
61. ^ Michael
Shapiro (2014), The Devanagari Writing System in A Primer of Modern
Standard Hindi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805088,
page 26
62. ^ Śiṣyalekha
(MS Add.1161), University of Cambridge Digital Libraries
63. ^ Salotgi Inscription, The Indian
Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research, S.P. Pandit (1872), pp.205–211;
Quote: "The inscription of which a translation is given below, is engraved
on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height, 1 foot 2 inches thick, and
1 foot 9 inches broad. It is cut in Devanagari characters on three of its four
sides, and [...]"
64. ^ (Bahri 2004, p. (xiii))[full citation
needed]
65. ^ Akshar Unicode South Asia Language
Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
66. ^ Annapurna
SIL Unicode, SIL International (2013)
67. ^ Arial Unicode South Asia Language
Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
68. ^ Jump up to:a b CDAC-GIST Surekh Unicode South Asia
Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
69. ^ CDAC-GIST Yogesh South Asia Language
Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
70. ^ Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts[permanent dead link]|date=July
2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Harvard University (2010);
see Chanda
and Uttara ttf 2010 archive (Accessed: July 8, 2015)
71. ^ Gargi South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
72. ^ Gurumaa Unicode – a sans font Archived 11 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine KDE (2012)
73. ^ Jaipur South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
74. ^ Jana South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
75. ^ Kalimati South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
76. ^ Kanjirowa South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
77. ^ Mangal South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
78. ^ alib-ms. "Kokila font family - Typography". docs.microsoft.com.
Retrieved 19 September 2020.
79. ^ Raghu South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
80. ^ Sanskrit Ashram South Asia Language
Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
81. ^ Jump up to:a b Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts[permanent dead link] Harvard
University (2010); see Chanda and Uttara ttf 2010 archive
(Accessed: July 8, 2015)
82. ^ Thyaka South Asia Language Resource,
University of Chicago (2009)
83. ^ Devanagari
font Archived 13 November 2014 at the Wayback MachineUnicode Standard 8.0 (2015)
84. ^ Daya
Nand Sharma (1972), Transliteration
into Roman and Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group,
Survey of India, 1972, ... With the passage of time there has emerged a
practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied
alphabets. Nevertheless, no single system of Romanisation has yet developed ...
85. ^ United
Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (2007), Technical
reference manual for the standardisation of geographical names,
United Nations Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-92-1-161500-5, ...
ISO 15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or
in international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually
used national system of romanisation in India ...
86. ^ United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (1955), United
Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2,
United Nations, 1955, ... In India the Hunterian system is used, whereby
every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter
in the Roman alphabet ...
87. ^ National
Library (India) (1960), Indian
scientific & technical publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography,
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India,
1960, ... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has international
acceptance, has been used ...
88. ^ Jump up to:a b Devanagari IAST conventions Script Source
(2009), SIL International, United States
89. ^ Jump up to:a b Transliteration
of Devanāgarī Archived 6 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine D. Wujastyk (1996)
90. ^ "LOC.gov".
LOC.gov. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
91. ^ "0001.eps" (PDF).
Retrieved 13 June 2011.
92. ^ "LOC.gov" (PDF).
Retrieved 13 June 2011.
General sources[edit]
·
Lambert, Hester
Marjorie (1953), Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of
Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege
(Oxford University Press).
·
Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
·
Snell, Rupert
(2000), Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script, Hodder &
Stoughton, ISBN 978-0-07-141984-0.
·
Salomon, Richard
(2003), "Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona,
George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge,
pp. 67–103, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
·
Verma, Sheela
(2003), "Magahi", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The
Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 498–514, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.